Resources

Below is a collection of resources containing information about caring for deer and forests.

Whitetails Are Changing Our Woodlands

This headline from a January 1993 article inthe Washington Post gets to the heart of scientists' concern that browsing by an overabundance of whitetail deer is inhibiting forest growth and reducing the diversity of plant and animal species. The article cites an excessive deer population in Virginia C...probably five times as large as it was when Europe ansettlers arrived, but in fact the problem extends throughout the eastern temperate hardwood forests from southern NewEngland through the mid-Atlantic states and westward to the CrestLakes region. This was written by Stephen B. Jones, David deCalesta and Shelby E. Chunko for The American Forests.

Ecological And Sociological Aspects of White-tailed Deer Herbivory In South Central Wisconsin

White-tailed deer numbers have increased dramatically in Wisconsin in the 20th century. This has been due to several factors; (1) protection afforded deer early in this century, (2) the elimination or near elimination of natural predators and (3) by forestry practices which have created a mosaic of young and mature forests with a large amount of edge habitat. This was written by Rebecca Ann Christoffel for The University of Wisconsin - Madison.

Deer Density Effects On A Forest Ecosystem: A Study Its History-Design-Implementation

Today's second growth Cherry-Maple forests on the Allegheny Plateau have been heavily influenced by decades of overbrowsing by white-tailed deer. When these forests were established deer were nearly extinct in Pennsylvania. Laws to protect deer and vat amounts of forage created by the extensive cutting that took place from 1890 to 1930 combined to set the stage for a major eruption of the deer herd that lasted through the early '40s. A combination of severe winters and lack of forage caused by stands growing out of reach of the deer caused mass starvation and a sharp decline in populations from 1940 through the early 1950's. As the forests began to reach commercial size in the '50s cutting increased and modern deer herd management techniques were instituted. Deer herds increased although not as rapidly as earlier and began to level of or decline slightly in the 1980's to the present day. This paper will describe the history of forests and deer on the Plateau form pre-settlement time to the present. This was written by Jim Redding.

A Conflict Between Forest Renewal and White-tailed Deer: A Silviculturalist's Perspective on Values

This conference is focused on "The Impact of Deer on the Biodiversity and Economy of Pennsylvania. "Each speaker on this panel has been asked to speak about the interaction between our values and the ecological impacts of white tailed deer from a specific perspective. My perspective is that of a silviculturist. Silvicuiturists study how trees and forests grow, so that we can help maintain and establish or re-establish forests that sustain the benefits that humans value. We can use silviculture to open a vista, to muffle distant noises, to create habitat for one or more wildlife species, or to produce wood products, for example. This article was written by Susan L. Stout, U.S. Forest Service Forestry Science Laboratory, for The Impact of Deer on the Biodiversity and Economy of the State of Pennsylvania Conference held September 24-25, 1999.

Acorn Weevils, Rodents, and Deer All Contribute to Oak-Regeneration Difficulties in Pennsylvania

In parts of Pennsylvania, oak regeneration after harvest cutting or natural disturbances has been very poor. Studies on the Tuscarora State Forest suggest that the primary cause of natural regeneration failure may be a lack of viable acorns; on some sites acorn insects and rodents destroy nearly all acorns, even in good seed years. Artificial regeneration is not without difficulties either: rodents were able toreach direct-seeded acorns even through plastic protectors; and planted seedlings have been severely damaged by deer browsing. This article was written by David A. Marquis, Philip L. Eckert, and Benjamin A. Roach for the USDA Forest Service (Research Paper NE-356).

Can Silviculture Change Deer Impact?

A case study conducted on the Allegheny National Forest in Pennsylvania supported the hypothesis that silviculture can be used to increase forage production within a landscape of forest strands to mitigate the impact of deer on forest regeneration. The case study took place in a management area completely lacking advance regeneration. Beginning in 1988, silviculture to produce high forage (13% clear cutting, 33% thinning) was applied to this 1,100- acre compartment. Successful regeneration developed on all of the clear cuts, where regeneration stocking averaged 90% (+ 7.0%, N=5). Advance regeneration in partial cuts increased (p< 0.000, paired t-test) over time, from 17.5% (+17.8%, n=14) to 64.4% (+30.5%). This preliminary assessment suggests that increasing forage available to deer by using established silvicultural practices can reduce the effect of deer browsing on forest regeneration. This article was written by S.L. Stout, D.S. deCalesta, and L. DeMarco for the 1995 Society of American Foresters Convention Proceedings. The conferece was held October 18-November 1, 1995 in Portland, Maine.

Can Small Deer Enclosures Work?

Understanding the impact of deer density levels on forest regeneration is critical for determining acceptable deer populations. Deer are a natural component of the ecosystem, however, a variety of human impacts on the landscape may have resulted in deer numbers exceeding their natural densities in some areas. Researchers, resource managers, and the general public have noted negative impacts from high deer densities on tree regeneration, herbaceous plants, aquatic systems, and vertebrate and invertebrate species. These impacts can result in severe ecological degradation and economic losses, as has been observed in forestry regeneration projects in many parts of the country, including Wisconsin. This article was written by Karl Martin for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

Canary in the Coal Mine - A Short History of Northern Pennsylvania Forests and Thier Deer Herd

The results that we discuss in the text of this issue are important to most northeastern states. But why focus on northwestern Pennsylvania forests, you ask? What is happening there that is important to the rest of the Northeast? In the following short history of the forests of northwestern Pennsylvania, we will discuss what very high deer populations can do to a forest ecosystem. The unique ecological and human history of the Allegheny Plateau in northwestern Pennsylvania have created a situation that could be considered an indicator of the possible future for the rest of the Northeast, if deer populations are not controlled — a kind of"canary in the coal mine." (See Jim Redding's paper, "History of Deer Population Trends and Forest Cutting on the Allegheny National Forest" for a more complete history.) This article was included in the Forest Science Review, Winter 2004.

Controlling Deer Damage in Wisconsin

Deer and the damage they cause are part of a larger problem of wildlife: a public resource on private land. Wildlife cannot simply be eliminated when it conflicts with a landowner's use of land. Neither can landowners bear the entire burden of support for these public resources. The solution lies somewhere between these extremes. Wisconsin must manage its deer herd to satisfy several interest groups. Most landowners enjoy having some deer on their property, despite real or potential damage. This fact, coupled with the economic and aesthetic values of deer, suggests that a combination of herd control through hunting and a conscientious and reasonable effort at damage control will serve everyone's needs. This article was written by Scott Craven for Woodland Managment, Summer 2006.

Current and Predicted Long-term Effects of Deer Browsing in Hemlock Forests in Michigan, USA

Remnants of virgin hemlock Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. forest in the Porcupine Mountains, Michigan, USA, have experienced inadequate hemlock regeneration lasting several decades. White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus Zimmermann browsing seems to be the major cause of the observed decline of hemlock regeneration, rather than poor seedbed conditions or changing climate. In some areas, significant changes in the size-structure of the forest have already occurred, with a shift of dominance from hemlock to sugar maple Acer saccharum Marsh taking place. A simulation of forest development is used to predict the changes in forest structure that will occur if no action is taken to control browsing. From this simulation it is estimated that in less than 150 years, hemlock will become only a minor component of the forest over large areas where it is currently the major dominant. This article was written by Lee E. Frelich and Craig G. Lorimer with the Department of Forestry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, published in Biological Conservation.

Deer Browsing in Northern Hardwoods after Clearcutting

There is a close relationship between management of forest land for timber and management for game. This is especially evident in the use of cutting practices that yield both timber and deer browse. The relationship reaches almost symbiotic proportions in northern hardwoods after clearcutting for stand regeneration. Usually an abundance of woody vegetation — both commercial and non-commercial species —is produced; and much of this can be utilized by deer with no undesirable effect on the composition and growth of the future stand. Under light to moderate browsing, seedlings of commercial species may actually undergo less competition because deer prefer the faster-growing sprouts. And stands of seedling origin are generally thought to be of higher quality than those of sprout origin. This article was written by James S. Jordan for the U.S. Forest Service (Research Paper NE-57).

Deer Carrying Capacity: Too Few, Too Many, and for Whom?

Management of white-tailed deer is one of Pennsylvania's most controversial issues. This gentle, attractive mammal is avaluable and widely appreciated natural resource, yet the impact of the size of the current deer population on forest plant and animal communities and humans is significant. This article was written by Barbara McGuinness for The Northern Logger and Timber Processor, October 1997.

Deer Exclusion Effects on Understory Development Following Partial Cutting in a Pennsylvania Oak Stand

Forty fenced and unfenced paired plots were established in a central Pennsylvania mixed oak stand following an improvement shelterwood cut to assess the influence of deer exclusion on the establishment and development of understory vegetation during the first four years following cutting. Exclusion of deer increased the abundance and height growth of woody regeneration which consisted primarily of yellow-poplar, red maple, black birch and black gum. Few oak seedlings became established during the study in either the fenced or unfenced plots. Deer exclusion affected herbaceous composition and enhanced the abundance of woody vines and shrubs. Possible implications of deer exclusion following partial cutting on stand development and plant diversity following further overstory removal are discussed. This article was written by Larry H. McCormick, John W. Groninger, Kathy A. Penrod, and Todd E. Ristau for the 9th Central Hardwood Forest Conference held March 8-10, 1993.

Deer in Allegheny Plateau Forests: Learning the Lessons of Scale

Scientists began reporting that deer were reducing the abundance and diversity of plant species in Allegheny Plateau forests in the 1930s and 1940s. By the 1960s, nearly 50% of the stand-level regeneration harvests attempted by forest managers resulted in failures-that is, forests were replaced by fields of herbaceous plants. Studies confirmed the role of deer in regeneration failures and assessed the responses of managed forests to different levels of deer density. These studies suggested that the impact of deer on forest ecosystems is a joint function of deer density and the amount of forage available on a landscape. Issues of scale have posed challenges in this research. Deer impact on forest ecosystems is controlled largely at the small landscape scale. As foresters, we have viewed and studied these impacts at the stand scale. This mismatch has led to occasional suprises, and we are now working on a study to determine the most effective scale for measuring and managing deer impact. This article was written by S.L. Stout and R. Lawerence and was included in the 1995 Society of American Foresters Convention Proceedings. The conference was held October 28-November 1, 1995 in Portland, Maine.

Deer and Ecosystem Management

Within the last decade, managers of public and private forestlands have contemplated managing forest resources in ways that address the desired (future) condition (outcomes) of these resources (Society of American Foresters 1993), which include all plant and animal species, non-commercial as well as commercial. Such management necessitates dealing with ecosystems and dovetails with an emerging management concept identified as"ecosystem management" (Society of American Foresters 1993; Grum-bine 1994; Salwasser 1994). This article was written by David S. deCalesta, included in the book The Science of Overabundance: Deer Ecology and Population Managment.

Deer and Forest Health

Scientists have studied deer and their impacts on forests for most of this century. They conducted much of this research before the phrase "forest health" took on the importance that it has today. The definition of a healthy forest -- one in which all the components are there, and are ensured of renewal over time -- did not exist until recently, either. Research shows that when deer densities are high, deer eliminate important components from forests or make it very difficult for humans to protector restore these components. This article was written by Susan L. Stout for Pennslyvania Forests, Spring 1998.

Deer and Forest Resources: Not Just a Pennsylvania Problem

The impact of deer on forest resources is a big issue in Pennsylvania today, but we are not the only ones facing this problem. Other states, notably Michigan, Virginia, NewYork, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Connecticut are noticing significant increases in deer damage to forest resources. Maryland, Delaware, Iowa, Ohio, and West Virginia are reporting rising deer herds, and expect problems in the future. At the Forestry Sciences Laboratory in Warren, Pa., we've received calls from foresters in New Jersey, Ohio, Virginia, and West Virginia who want to know what they can do to alleviate deer pressure on forest communities. This article was written by Barbara J. McGuinness of the Northeastern Experiment Station for the PAEE Journal 1996.

Defining deer overabundance and threats to forest communities: From individual plants to landscape structure

Changes in habitat and reduction in predation and hunting pressure are two primary causes of high-density populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus viginianus) in many areas of eastern North America. Despite increasing recognition of the major effects deer exert on forest communities, deciding when deer are overabundant remains a major challenge to managers charged with conserving native plant communities. In this context, we define overabundance as a condition where deer are causing the local extinction of a native plant species.

Drive-Line Census for Deer Within Fenced Enclosures

Methodology is presented for conducting drive-line counts to obtain absolute numbers of deer 'within fairly small (<560 ha) areas. Planning and layout of the drive and the organization of persons who make up the drive-line teams are discussed. Procedures for maintaining proper spacing and alignment of drivers are described. On a drive of a 5.7-km2 estate enclosed by a 2.5-m-tail deer fence in northwest Pennsylvania, numbers of deer (78) were within one of an estimate derived from a standard deer pellet-group court. The key elements of a successful drive are organization and communication before and during the drive. This article was written by David S. deCalesta and Gary W. Witmer for the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station.

Effect of Deer Browsing on Timber Production in Allegheny Hardwood Forests of Northwestern Pennsylvania

Regeneration surveys in fenced and unfenced portions of thirteen 9- to 22-year-old clearcuts on the Allegheny Plateau of Northwestern Pennsylvania show that deer browsing has resulted in (a) inadequate stocking of tree species, (b) delay in establishment, and (c) less valuable species composition. Ninety-two percent of the fenced areas, but only 38 percent of the unfenced areas, are considered satisfactorily stocked. The value of timber production lost as a result of browsing during the regeneration period is estimated to average $1,075 per acre. This article was written by David A. Marquis, United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service (Research Paper NE-475).

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